In 1885, Germany and Portugal became neighbours in Africa, with German Southwest Africa halting Angola's southward expansion. The border along the Cunene and Kavango Rivers remained disputed. Following the outbreak of World War I, Portugal's neutrality was questioned in German Southwest Africa. Tensions escalated when German officials near the Angolan border were shot at the fortress Naulila, leading to a state of war. German troops retaliated against southern Angola, notably attacking Naulila in December 1914. After their victory, the Germans retreated to GSWA, but the weakened Portuguese army was soon expelled by African forces, particularly the Kwanyama led by King Mandume. In 1915, Portugal launched a counter-offensive, resulting in the complete occupation of Kwanyama territories. Post-war, a Luso-German arbitration process under the Treaty of Versailles assessed damages in Angola and Germany's reparations. The 1928 arbitration award, which held Germany accountable for violating international law during the Naulila attack, remains significant in modern international law. The book concludes by examining the memorial culture that emerged in Angola, Namibia, Germany, and Portugal surrounding the war of 1914/15.
