Wolfgang Schmale Books

What is European in the history of Europe? In order to answer this question, Wolfgang Schmale uses two approaches. Firstly, he develops the concept of a performative speech act into what he defines as a collective historical speech act. Secondly, he looks at European history from a gender point of view. Europe was generally thought to be male – considering the former Republic of Letters' definition of Europe as a male civilization. However, the 18th-century's performative speech act presently loses its binding force as European civilization develops from 'male' to diversity and plurality, yet right wing parties try to defend and to repeat the historical performative speech act by ignoring the fundamental switch in European civilization. This will only produce violent conflicts. This book considers developments and consequences in a post-performative epoch.

The iconography of the four continents originated in the 16th and early 17th centuries, coinciding with Europe's transformative discoveries and conquests in the New World. Its widespread dissemination peaked in the 18th century, particularly during the late Baroque period. This era is notable for two key reasons: the abundance of reproductions and the diverse significance of these allegories. They were integrated into various contexts, including religious and liturgical settings, political discourse, and narratives of civilization and humanity. In this context, the continent allegories transcended mere art historical interpretation, becoming integral to religious, liturgical, political, and historical dialogues. As a form of pictorial language, they were closely intertwined with texts, dogmas, narratives, and stereotypes. The authors of this volume explore the meanings and implications of these allegories for individuals in the Baroque age, examining their roles within the cultural and historical landscape of the time. Through various historical and cultural perspectives, they seek to uncover the significance these allegories held for 18th-century society.

The idea of a „United States of Europe“ was revived during the European Parliament elections in May 2019. However, the idea dates back to the early 19th century while being particularly popular in the first half of the 20th century. It focused on how European integration is related to democracy and human rights. The main player was civil society, including, in the inter-war period, the interconnected human rights leagues and Masons. The resistance in World War II carried the idea forward. It reached its peak popularity between 1946 and 1951, when Winston Churchill pleaded in favour of a „United States of Europe“. This caused many people to write to him and those letters provide insights into the concept of a European unity from an individual point of view. This book is based on the analysis of extensive archive material of Masons, human rights leagues and those letters to Churchill. It enhances critical research on the idea of Europe and its civil society base. It also takes a fresh look at Masons, human rights leagues and at the interconnections between the notions of Europe and civilization.

When the French Ligue des droits de l’homme was founded in 1898, it was the world’s first league for human rights. Over the following decades, human rights leagues were formed in many other countries following its example, and from 1922, they advocated for a universal human rights ideal under the auspices of a shared umbrella organization. The majority of these leagues were forced to interrupt their activities at some point, especially during the National Socialist period. After World War II, many leagues experienced a renaissance. Not least through their cooperation with the United Nations, they significantly contributed to the global acceptance of the very idea of human rights in the second half of the 20th century. The contributors in this volume break new ground: they provide a so-far lacking overview of international research on human rights leagues, synthesizing it and identifying research desiderata. Some of the presented civil society associations, like those in Eastern Europe, have never before been subject to scholarly consideration.