Geoid Determination

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This book consolidates lecture notes from International Schools for the Determination and Use of the Geoid, organized by the International Geoid Service of the International Association of Geodesy. It uniquely presents the theory and methodology of the most common techniques for precise geoid determination, including marine geoid computation from satellite altimetry data, all in a single volume. Specific examples and actual computations of local geoids are included to illustrate these methods. Additionally, it covers the fundamentals of estimating orthometric heights without spirit leveling, by effectively combining geoid data with GPS heights. This application has gained popularity among geodetic and geophysical communities, as it enables GPS and GIS users to convert GPS heights into meaningful orthometric heights (elevations above mean sea level). The book aims to serve a diverse user community—academics, graduate students, geophysicists, engineers, oceanographers, and researchers—by providing a comprehensive textbook that outlines the complete process of estimating geoid undulations, from theoretical definitions and formulas to numerical methods and practical implementation.