Jonathan Israel Series

Jonathan Israel is a British writer focusing on Dutch history, the Age of Enlightenment, and European Jews. In recent years, his attention has centered on a multi-volume history of the Enlightenment, sharply contrasting the "radical Enlightenment," rooted in Spinozan rationalist materialism, with the "moderate Enlightenment," which he argues was weakened by its belief in God. Through his highly controversial interpretation, Israel posits the radical Enlightenment as the primary source of the modern concept of freedom. He contends that the moderate Enlightenment figures, including Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau, made no significant contribution to the campaign against superstition and ignorance.